The founding of Visa (1958-1970s)
In the late 1950s, Bank of America launched BankAmericard, a charge card that only worked at merchants Bank of America signed up. Other banks issued competing cards that worked only at their own merchants. Dee Hock, a Bank of America executive, proposed a neutral network any bank could join, with no single bank in control, the structure that became Visa.
Banks joined in large numbers, and Visa's open-loop model spread globally.
Visa became one of the world's largest payments networks, processing trillions of dollars annually.
Atum is applying Hock's core insight to stablecoins: a coordination layer no single chain, issuer, or card network controls.
