The link economy and Google's paid-link crackdowns (2000s–2012)
Google's ranking made inbound links a currency. Link brokers, reciprocal schemes and paid placements grew into an industry, and Google's webmaster guidelines warned against buying links. In 2012 the company pushed the Penguin update, which demoted sites that used manipulative linking.
Some large sites lost rankings and hired consultants to clean up their link profiles.
The work split into penalized schemes and a legitimate discipline called content marketing and public relations.
Citation Optimization is the same pitch aimed at a new reader: persuade an outside page to name you. The open question is whether AI assistants will police it the way Google eventually did.
