The race to restore sight

Overview

Stanford researchers implanted a chip smaller than a Tic Tac under the retinas of 38 blind patients. A year later, 27 could read again. Some read entire books. The PRIMA device, published October 20, 2025 in the New England Journal of Medicine, is the first prosthetic to restore functional vision to people with macular degeneration—the leading cause of irreversible blindness.

In This Story

4 People

5 Orgs

PRIMA Reaches Market, Restores Vision to Thousands

3 Context

Cochlear Implants Transform Hearing Restoration

Key Indicators

27 of 32

Patients regained reading ability

PRIMA trial participants who could read after one year with the implant

5 lines

Average vision improvement

Mean visual acuity gain on eye charts; one patient improved 12 lines

5 million

People with geographic atrophy

Global population suffering vision loss from advanced macular degeneration

$7B

Projected market by 2032

Artificial retina implant market forecast, growing at 21% annually

20/42

Best-case vision with zoom

Equivalent visual acuity achieved by some PRIMA patients using digital enhancements

Interactive

Exploring all sides of a story is often best achieved with Play.

Ever wondered what historical figures would say about today's headlines?

Debate Arena

Two rounds, two personas, one winner. You set the crossfire.

People Involved

Daniel Palanker

Professor of Ophthalmology, Stanford University (Co-senior author of landmark PRIMA clinical trial)

José-Alain Sahel

Chair, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh (Co-senior author and vision restoration pioneer)

Max Hodak

CEO, Science Corporation (Former Neuralink president, leading PRIMA commercialization)

Elon Musk

CEO, Neuralink (Developing competing cortical vision implant called Blindsight)

Organizations Involved

Science Corporation

Neurotechnology Company

Status: Commercializing PRIMA retinal implant system

Four-year-old neurotechnology company that acquired Stanford's PRIMA technology and raised $260 million to commercialize it.

Stanford Medicine

Academic Medical Center

Status: Developed PRIMA technology, co-led clinical trials

Stanford's Department of Ophthalmology developed the photovoltaic retinal prosthesis technology underlying PRIMA.

Neuralink

Neurotechnology Company

Status: Developing Blindsight cortical visual prosthesis, FDA breakthrough designation received

Brain-computer interface company developing Blindsight, a cortical implant that bypasses the eye to restore vision.

Second Sight Medical Products

Medical Device Company (defunct operations)

Status: Pioneered Argus II retinal implant, ceased operations 2020, merged 2023

Developed the first FDA-approved retinal prosthesis but ceased support, stranding 350 implanted patients.

GenSight Biologics

Gene Therapy Company

Status: Conducting PIONEER trial of GS030 optogenetic therapy

Developing optogenetic gene therapy that reprograms surviving retinal neurons to become light-sensitive.

Timeline

PRIMA Restores Reading Vision in Blind Patients
Research

New England Journal of Medicine publishes landmark PRIMA trial: 27 of 32 patients regained reading ability after one year with implant.
October 20th, 2025
Neuralink's Blindsight Gets FDA Fast-Track
Regulatory

FDA grants breakthrough device designation to Neuralink's Blindsight cortical visual prosthesis, accelerating development timeline.
September 1st, 2024
GenSight Reports Optogenetics Trial Data
Research

GenSight Biologics announces 1-year safety and efficacy signals from PIONEER trial of GS030 optogenetic therapy for retinitis pigmentosa.
February 1st, 2023
Hodak Leaves Neuralink, Founds Science Corp
Market

Neuralink co-founder and president Max Hodak departs to launch Science Corporation, targeting vision restoration with retinal implants.
May 1st, 2021
First Optogenetic Vision Restoration
Research

Sahel's team achieves first partial vision restoration in blind patient using optogenetic gene therapy with ChrimsonR protein.
January 1st, 2021
PRIMA Early Safety Data Published
Research

Palanker and Sahel publish preliminary PRIMA safety data in Nature Communications, showing feasibility of photovoltaic subretinal prosthesis.
April 1st, 2020
Argus II Support Ends, Devices Go Obsolete
Market

Second Sight ceases technical support for Argus II and Orion implants, stranding patients with obsolete devices still embedded in eyes.
January 1st, 2020
Second Sight Halts Argus II Manufacturing
Market

Revenue shortfalls force Second Sight to stop manufacturing Argus II despite 350 patients worldwide with implanted devices.
May 1st, 2019
FDA Approves First Retinal Implant
Regulatory

Argus II receives FDA approval under humanitarian device exemption, becoming first approved visual prosthesis in the United States.
February 13th, 2013
Palanker Conceives Photovoltaic Retinal Prosthesis
Research

Daniel Palanker at Stanford realizes the eye's transparency enables wireless information delivery via infrared light, conceiving PRIMA.
January 1st, 2005
First Human Retinal Prosthetic Implant
Milestone

Second Sight's Argus I device implanted in first six patients with retinitis pigmentosa, launching the modern era of visual prosthetics.
January 1st, 2002

Scenarios

PRIMA Reaches Market, Restores Vision to Thousands

Discussed by: Science Corporation management, medical device analysts, Stanford and Pittsburgh researchers

Science Corp wins regulatory approval in Europe and the U.S. by late 2026, commercializing PRIMA for geographic atrophy patients. The device's demonstrated safety profile and functional reading outcomes convince payers to cover the procedure. With 5 million potential patients worldwide and growing surgical adoption, PRIMA captures significant market share. Competitors struggle to match PRIMA's clinical results. The success validates retinal implants as the fastest path to vision restoration and establishes Science Corp as the market leader. Improved versions with higher resolution and larger visual fields follow within 3-5 years.

Multiple Technologies Coexist, Target Different Patients

Discussed by: Vision restoration researchers, neuroethics scholars, ophthalmology professional societies

Retinal implants, optogenetics, and cortical BCIs each carve out distinct patient populations based on disease stage and anatomy. PRIMA dominates macular degeneration with intact retinal structure. GenSight's optogenetics serves early-stage retinitis pigmentosa patients. Neuralink's Blindsight targets those with completely destroyed retinas or optic nerves. The market fragments across approaches, with no single winner. Insurance coverage and pricing become key battlegrounds. Patients face difficult choices about invasiveness, performance, and long-term support. Regulatory frameworks evolve to ensure companies maintain support for implanted devices throughout patient lifetimes.

Safety Concerns or Support Failures Stall the Field

Discussed by: FDA officials, bioethicists, patient advocacy groups, IEEE Spectrum investigation

Long-term complications emerge with PRIMA or competing devices—infections, retinal damage, or device failures requiring risky removal surgeries. Or Science Corp faces financial pressures and reduces patient support, echoing Second Sight's 2020 abandonment of Argus II patients. Regulators respond with stricter requirements for device longevity and mandatory company reserves for lifetime patient support. The setbacks slow adoption and spook investors, delaying the vision restoration revolution by 5-10 years. The Argus II debacle becomes a cautionary tale cited in every regulatory review.

Cortical BCIs Leapfrog Retinal Implants

Discussed by: Neuralink, brain-computer interface researchers, futurist technology analysts

Neuralink's Blindsight or competing cortical implants demonstrate superior visual acuity within 2-3 years, rendering retinal approaches obsolete. Direct brain stimulation enables higher resolution, larger visual fields, and eventually augmented vision beyond natural human capability. Retinal implants prove to be a transitional technology, useful for the first generation but superseded by brain-direct approaches. Elon Musk's bold claims about exceeding normal vision prove prescient. The market tilts heavily toward cortical BCIs despite their invasiveness, driven by dramatically better performance.

Historical Context

Cochlear Implants Transform Hearing Restoration

1984-present

What Happened

The FDA approved the first cochlear implant in 1984 to replace the sense of hearing in profoundly deaf adults. Early devices provided limited speech recognition, and many in the deaf community opposed them. But successive generations improved dramatically. Today over 1 million people worldwide have cochlear implants, with many users achieving near-normal hearing and speech comprehension.

Outcome

Short Term

Initial skepticism and modest results gave way to steady technological refinement and expanding FDA indications through the 1990s-2000s.

Long Term

Cochlear implants became standard of care for profound deafness, proving that prosthetic sensory restoration was medically and commercially viable at scale.

Why It's Relevant Today

Cochlear implants provide the template for visual prosthetics: early modest results, iterative improvement, eventual mainstream acceptance, and a sustainable market supporting long-term device improvements.

Argus II Goes Obsolete, Stranding Implanted Patients

2013-2020

What Happened

Second Sight's Argus II became the first FDA-approved retinal prosthesis in 2013. More than 350 blind patients worldwide paid $150,000 each for the implant. But the company generated only $32 million in revenue against $300 million invested. Financial pressures from COVID-19 forced Second Sight to cease manufacturing in 2019 and stop technical support in 2020, leaving patients with obsolete devices still embedded in their eyes. A 2023 merger promised renewed support but highlighted devastating ethical failures.

Outcome

Short Term

Patients lost the ability to use their implants as external hardware failed and software support vanished, some describing it as 'going blind twice.'

Long Term

The Argus II collapse became a cautionary tale driving regulatory focus on device longevity and company obligations to support implanted patients throughout their lifetimes.

Why It's Relevant Today

The Argus II failure hangs over every new visual prosthetic, raising critical questions about whether companies like Science Corp can sustain long-term patient support if commercial success proves elusive.

Human Genome Project Accelerates Medical Technology

1990-2003

What Happened

The Human Genome Project sequenced all human DNA, taking 13 years and costing $2.7 billion. The achievement seemed like a moonshot with unclear applications. But it catalyzed an explosion in genomics, gene therapy, and precision medicine. Tools that once took years and millions became routine in labs worldwide within a decade. Gene therapies for previously untreatable conditions began reaching patients in the 2010s-2020s.

Outcome

Short Term

The completed genome initially underwhelmed—no immediate cures emerged, and many questioned the investment's value through the early 2000s.

Long Term

The genome project's tools and knowledge enabled an entire generation of therapies including CAR-T cancer treatments, gene therapies for blindness, and mRNA vaccine platforms.

Why It's Relevant Today

Vision restoration technologies like optogenetics and retinal prosthetics directly descend from genomics and neuroscience breakthroughs the Human Genome Project accelerated, showing how foundational research enables seemingly impossible medical achievements.